Here’s a beginner’s guide showcasing Pmod compatibility with the popular Arduino Uno platform. We will use a sample project – Pmod NAV – described on the Digilent Projects website. And then… Try to make your own project!

The Digilent Projects website is a good starting point for working on Pmod and Arduino projects. You can browse through more than 40 Pmod projects, many of them based on Fritzing images, which facilitate practical applications.

How to use Digilent Projects?

Each project begins with a short description of its goal, the difficulty level, implementation requirements and in many cases Fritzing images. Fritzing is an application for all electronics enthusiasts. It lets you design electronic devices, create their prototypes on breadboards, and use them as a basis for drawing and editing electronic schematics, and designing PCBs. Even if a project does not include a Fritzing image, like the Pmod NAV project we’re about to review, they all have written instructions for the pins you need to connect at the beginning of the provided Arduino code.

How to configure your Arduino Uno?

If you are new to Arduino, first download and install the Arduino IDE . The installation link can be found on each Pmod project under “software apps and online services”. After downloading the Arduino IDE you may also need to download additional libraries referenced in the “materials” section of the Arduino code for your Pmod project. After clicking the provided GitHub link in your code description, choose “download ZIP” in the drop-down menu below the green “clone or download” button. Once downloaded you must rename this file by removing the “master” text at the end of the folder name (an example of a proper folder name: “SparkFun_LSM9DS1_Arduino_Library”) and move the folder to your Arduino downloads folder (e.g. Documents>Arduino>libraries).

Moving on to the sample project

Returning to your Pmod NAV project, scroll down to the provided Arduino code and click “copy the code” at the top right corner next to the project code title. Proceed by opening a new Arduino sketch, deleting the automatically loaded code, and pasting the code you copied from your Pmod NAV project. The next step requires making sure that everything works by clicking “verify” (i.e. the √ icon) at the top left and confirming that no errors are reported at the bottom of your screen. If you see any errors you can find help by visiting Digilent’s dedicated technical support community on the Digilent Forum and posting under Add-on Boards . Once you receive a “done compiling” message you are ready to connect your Pmod NAV to your Arduino Uno.

Arduino code excerpt

Connecting the Pmod NAV

The Pmod NAV project does not include a supporting Fritzing image, therefore you need to read through the Arduino code to figure out which pins to connect. In Image 1 you can find this information under “Wiring” where Pmod NAV pins 6, 5, 4, and 2 are given under the word “Module” and their Arduino locations are given under “Arduino”. If you have trouble deciding how to place your pins, try visiting the Digilent Wiki . There you can find each Pmod’s pinout(s) on the right side of your screen.

While connecting your Pmod you may also need a cable (not listed in the project’s necessary components) such as the 6-pin MTE Cable and 6-pin Header & Gender Changer, or the Pmod Cable Kit: 12-pin. In this example, the 6-pin MTE Cable was used and it made the whole operation easier. Plugging this cable onto the top row of the Pmod NAV pinout (this project only uses pins 2-6) allowed for quick differentiation and finding the most important pins like ground and power – much easier then when using a standard 12-pin cable. The resulting connections can be seen in Image 2.

Pmod NAV connected to Arduino UNO

Connecting the Arduino to a USB port

After setting up the code and connecting your Pmod NAV to the Arduino Uno, you can connect your Arduino to your computer’s USB port. After choosing the correct port (e.g. Tools>Port>”/dev/cu.usbmodem…”) click “Upload” (i.e. the arrow at the top left of your Arduino script page) and wait for the “Done compiling” message at the bottom of your screen.

Getting results

At this point your Pmod NAV and Arduino Uno should be ready to show the results found when running the Serial Monitor (on Macs you can use the shortcut Shift+Command+M, or find this under the “Tools” dropdown menu). The Serial Monitor should show constantly changing output similar to the one shown on Image 3.

Data sent by the Pmod NAV

Other output data

Another output that you can use is the Serial Plotter (shortcut: Shift+Command+L), which plots the position of your Pmod NAV as you move it around. While it’s connected to your Arduino Uno, you can pick up your Pmod NAV and watch the graph update as you change your Pmod’s position by rotating, shaking, or turning it upside down. An example of this output data can be found in Image 4, with different peaks for different Pmod NAV movements.

Graphical representation of data sent by the PmodNAV

Try out the Pmods!

You now know all you need to get your Pmods running with Arduino Uno. Even if you’re a beginner electronics enthusiast, you can now start creating your own projects. If this is not your first project, show others how easy it is to use Pmods with microcontrollers. You can find a wide selection of Pmods at Transfer Multisort Elektronik’s website (www.tme.pl).

The post Pmods – How to get started? appeared first on Electronics For You.

Olching, 18.01.2018 – Introducing a performance of 100 mW, LG Innotek, industrial partner of LASER COMPONENTS, sets new standards for single-chip UVC LEDs. The manufacturer states that this development is two years ahead of current industry forecasts. So far, experts had assumed that similar output powers would not be achieved until 2020.

Optimized chip design leads to considerable increase in UV output, while waste heat is discharged effectively, and therefore granting stable performance over long periods. One such UVC LED can emit strong ultraviolet light at 278 nm for more than 10,000 hours.

UVC light destroys the DNA of bacteria and other germs. LEDs of this spectrum are mainly used for the disinfection of air, water and surfaces. Due to powers of just a few milliwatts, only motionless water and air masses could be sterilized. The new, high-performance radiation sources allow for new applications such as use in air conditioning systems or purification of running water.

Description

While emitters in UVB wavelengths (280-315 nm) are primarily used in medical technology, the main applications of UVC LEDs (200-280 nm) include purification applications.

UVB Applications (280-315 nm)

• Medical photometry
• Biotechnology

UVC Applications (200-280 nm)

• Sterilization
• Water decontamination
• Odor control

The post World’s First UVC LED with 100 mW appeared first on Electronics For You.

In electronics, there are many ways to play with light the way you dream. If you are looking for an inexpensive solution, regular light-dependent resistors (LDRs) can also be used as optical sensors.

Light-dependent resistors based on cadmium-sulphide (CdS) have a resistance that varies inversely with the amount of light falling on them. These LDRs are known by many names, including photoresistor, photoconductive cell or simply the photocell. Usually, LDRs are available in epoxy resin and hermetical packages (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: LDR packages

You can take a few measurements to determine the mathematical relationship between the LDR’s resistance and lux values by following the steps given below:

1. Insert the LDR into a breadboard so that the flat top of the LDR is parallel to the ground plane

2. Connect your digital multimeter (with its knob turned to the resistance range) to the two leads of the LDR

3. Place the sensor of the lux meter (Fig. 2) near the LDR

Fig. 2: Measuring the values of an LDR using lux meter

4. While ensuring that the same amount of light falls on the LDR and sensor, note down the LDR’s resistance and lux values in lux meter. Repeat this process for several different light and lux levels ranging from very dark to very bright light

5. Finally, transfer your findings to a spreadsheet and plot resistance as a function of light. Typically, the graph of LDR resistance as a function of light looks as shown in Fig. 3
CdS LDRs exhibit sensitivity curves that closely match the sensitivity of the human eye, which makes them useful in applications involving human light perception, such as headlight dimmers and intensity adjustments on information displays.

Fig. 3: Typical graph of LDR resistance as a function of light

LDR as a potential divider

Since the resistance of LDRs varies in response to light, usually potential divider concept is used to get a valid output for further processing by other parts of the circuit (for example, analogue-to-digital controller of a microcontroller). As shown in Fig. 4, when the LDR is at the top, we get a large Vo as the sensor has a low resistance, and when the LDR is at the bottom, we get a small Vo as the sensor has a high resistance.

Fig. 4: Potential divider using LDR: (a) LDR at the top, (b) LDR at the bottom

Practical application of LDR: smart bulb holder

Smart bulb holder is nothing but an AC-mains-operated incandescent, compact fluorescent or LED light bulb holder with a simple dusk-to-dawn/twilight controller circuit for automatic switching of your outdoor/corridor electric light bulbs (Fig. 5). The circuit, as shown in Fig. 6, can be enclosed in an appropriate light bulb holder. It comprises two equally important parts: 12V DC low-current power supply and LDR-based twilight-controlled switching circuitry.

Fig. 5: Light bulb with holder

For the sake of simplicity, a capacitive potential divider circuit is used for the power supply. Rest of the circuit, as stated, is the ambient-light-controlled electromagnetic relay driver built around a standard photoresistor (LDR1) and two small general-purpose switching transistors T1 and T2.

In the circuit, 230V AC mains input is rectified by diodes D1 through D4 and limited by Zener diode ZD1 to 12V DC, then smoothed by capacitor C2. A 5mm photoresistor (LDR1) is used to detect the ambient light level.

When there is little or no light, the resistance of LDR1 is high. So the voltage on the base of T1 is very low, which drives the transistor into cut-off mode. Consequently, T2 conducts to energise relay RL1 and switch on the exterior light connected at CON2.

Fig. 6: Circuit of the smart bulb holder

When sufficient light falls on the LDR1, the high voltage on base of T1 drives it into conduction. This interrupts the base current to T2, with the result that the relay de-energises. The switching level can be adjusted with the help of potentiometer VR1. Capacitor C3 provides a bit of hysteresis to prevent the system from jittering near the threshold level.

Since the circuit is connected directly to the AC mains power lines, house it inside an insulated cabinet made from wood/acrylic sheets. Make sure the relay is low-current type (well below 35 milliamperes). The author used a 12V, 400-ohm relay for the prototype (shown in Fig. 7).

Fig. 7: Author’s prototype

This circuit is suitable for wall-mounting and/or pole installation. Connect 230V AC input to CON1 and take output from CON2 terminals.

Caution! This circuit works on 230V AC mains, so take care to avoid lethal shock.

The post How to Play With Light Using LDR appeared first on Electronics For You.

In this video, the presenter is creating its own temperature and humidity monitor system using simple electronic components. The part list is included in the video.

Download DHT11 Library for Arduino: click here

Download code and circuit diagram here: click here

Courtesy: shubham shinganapure

Components Used:

• DHT 11
• Arduino
• 16 x 2 LCD
• Jumper wires
• 10k resistor

The post Construct Your Own Temperature & Humidity Monitor in Less Than 5 Minutes appeared first on Electronics For You.

A system-on-a-chip (SoC) integrates digital, analogue and mixed signals, as well as RF functions into a single unit. It consumes less power, which makes it ideal for smartphones.

Lower the power consumed by a chipset, higher is its efficiency. To ensure this, chipset technology has now reached 10nm scale, where key SoC manufacturers such as Qualcomm, Spreadtrum, Mediatek, Apple, Huawei and Intel are competing to outdo each other in chip performance and capture markets worldwide.

However, 10nm is not the final limit. “It is predicted that 10nm technology will be used till the end of year 2017. Year 2019 will experience a new 7nm technology, while around 2022 5nm technology would be in the market,” says Jag Bolaria, principal analyst for embedded and servers at Linley Group.

Features embedded in SoCs

An SoC is equivalent to the motherboard of a computer system that comprises a GPU, CPU and memory on a single chip. It is a successful integration of multiple domains such as device, design and application. As far as the device is concerned, several transistors are embedded into one single chip. This allows the chip to perform a wide range of functions through a single unit (chip).

As the increasing number of transistors on the chip push its applications to a broader range, chip design is becoming complicated and challenging. The challenge could be related to the device, design or execution.

SoCs comprise internal components such as microcontrollers/microprocessors, memory blocks, oscillators and phase-locked loops (PLLs) for timing, counter-timers/real-time timers, external interfaces such as USB, Ethernet and FireWire, analogue interfaces, voltage regulators and power management circuits.

Evolution in SoC technology

Various manufacturers use different configurations inside their SoCs depending on the type of technology used. For instance, Nvidia Tegra 3 SoC, built using 40nm technology, has only a GPU, memory controller and video out streams. On the other hand, Qualcomm Snapdragon S4, fabricated using 28nm technology, has LTE, GPE and WiFi all integrated in a single chip.

Newer chipsets fabricated on 10nm technology act as a high-end platform for highly efficient systems. At the same time, there are a few manufacturers struggling to roll over to mid-level and low-level smartphone segments with fabrication above 10nm.

The extended memory-LPDDR2 to LPDDR4-also adds value to the product (smartphone). ARM’s big.Little architecture helps smartphone chipsets with battery-saving and powerful cores such as HiSilicon Kirin 960/950/920 and Samsung Exynos 8895.

For instance, when a smartphone user plays a game that requires a high clock speed, processing speed and memory, cores in the processor are divided into big and little cores. Now, load is assigned to each of the cores simultaneously, avoiding situations where the smartphone hangs or its battery dies.

Tables I and II show the number of cores, memory capacity and fabrication technology used in SoCs from various manufacturers. FinFET (Fin field-effect transistors) technology creates thin fin-like structures, which reduces energy consumption.

Chipsets listed in Table I are fabricated on 10nm scale and use advanced memory type (LPDDR4) and features that make them ideal for high-end smartphone devices.

SoC classification as per specifications helps users to understand the SoCs’ significance and parameters. Moreover, smartphone manufacturers can compare the performance of the latest and running SoC models and decide to invest accordingly.

Fig. 1: Single-core CPU processing score for high-end SoCs of key players

Other than FinFET, new technology upgrades include Vulkan API and VoLTE technology. Some manufacturers have also started integrating artificial intelligence (AI) features into their chipsets. Kirin 970 chipset is an example.

Fig. 2: Multi-core CPU processing score for high-end SoCs of key players

Upgrades in SoC technology

As consumers demand highly efficient devices, “there are a few technology upgrades in chip fabrication to improve thermal management and smartphones’ download speed for multimedia applications. Extra features embedded include artificial intelligence/camera connectivity and support for WiFi and Voice-over-LTE (VoLTE) application requirements,” says Neeraj Sharma, head of Spreadtrum Communications.

Steve Roddy, senior group director with Cadence Design System, shares that smartphones are going to cover a lot more dimensions than just taking selfies. Now, SoC applications can vary from the Internet of Things (IoT) to drones and security cameras.

Fig. 3: Single-core CPU processing score for low-end SoCs

Efficient power management

Smartphone manufacturers target features like high-speed RAM, high-speed processor and multicore processor to offer a customer advantage. As the evolving multimedia services require high-speed data, power optimisation with features such as upgraded RAM, processor speed and multi-core CPUs is important.

Gated bus is a low-power-consumption technology used in SoCs. FinFET technology is being used by most SoC manufacturers. Qualcomm’s Snapdragon 835 uses 10nm technology with FinFET process node. More the fabrication nodes are shrinked, faster the system-on-chip operates and lesser is the power required. The amount of voltage is also lowered due to thinner fabrication node, which has helped in reducing leakage in the chip due to planar processes by up to 50 per cent.

The post The Best Chips for Mobile Devices appeared first on Electronics For You.

RFMW , Ltd. announces design and sales support for Qorvo’s TQP7M9106, high linearity amplifier. With frequency coverage from 50MHz to 1.5GHz, output IP3 is an astounding 50dBm making this 2 Watt amplifier ideal in applications such as small cell transceivers as well as 3G/4G wireless infrastructure, boosters and defense communications. The TQP7M9106 is part of a family of highly linear amplifiers that includes the TQM7M9104 which pushes the high end frequency to 4GHz. This 4x4mm QFN packaged amplifier provides ~21dB of gain at 1GHz while drawing only 455mA of current from a 5V supply. Evaluation boards are available for qualified applications.

The TQP7M9106 is a 2W 5V high-linearity driver amplifier in a standard 4x4mm QFN package. At 0.9 GHz, the TQP7M9106 offers 20.8 dB gain, ultra-high 50 dBm OIP3, and +33 dBm of compressed 1dB power while drawing 455 mA current. Internal circuitry allows the amplifier to offer ‘Class A’ linearity performance with ‘Class AB’ efficiency. The TQP7M9106 contains added patented features implemented on-chip that differentiates it from other products in the market. The amplifier contains RF overdrive protection allowing the device to be very rugged. The internal active bias allows the amplifier to operate off of a 5V supply but also provides DC overvoltage protection. This protects the amplifier from electrical DC voltage surges and high input RF input power levels that may occur in a system. On-chip ESD protection allows the amplifier to have a very robust Class 1C HBM ESD rating. The device is housed in a lead-free / green / RoHS-compliant, industry-standard 4x4mm QFN surface-mount package. The device is ideal for 3G / 4G small cell base stations, high power amplifiers, repeaters, Defense communications, or any other general wireless application in the 50-1500 MHz frequency range.

The post High Linearity 2W Amplifier for Small Cells appeared first on Electronics For You.

22nd January 2018 – Strengthening its widely-used Optomax portfolio of accurate, cost-effective and reliable infra-red (IR) liquid level switches, SST Sensing Ltd. now offers the Optomax Industrial series. These devices offer the same functionality and operational performance as customers have come to expect from standard Optomax switches, but with the added advantage of greater overall electrical robustness and flexibility. They are capable of accepting supply voltages from 4.5VDC to 15.4VDC or 8VDC to 30VDC and have built-in protection against over-voltage, reverse polarity, and the presence of voltage transients or electrostatic discharge strikes. Delivering an output current of up to 1A, they can be used to directly activate alarm beacons, relays, pumps and motors within the system – so that reactive measures can be taken. A broad variety of electronic output configurations are available, to meet specific application requirements.

The liquid level switches can deal with pressure levels up to 20bar. In addition, industrial operating temperature ranges are supported – standard models covering -25 to 80°C and extended versions spanning all the way from -40 to 125°C. These devices have compact dimensions, measuring as little as 33.8mm in length, and come in a choice of M12, ½”-20 UNFand 1/4” NPT thread options. They are supplied in two different chemically-resistant, anti-corrosive housing options, with Polysulfone being used for the majority of applications and Trogamid being employed mainly in tasks such as food and beverage processing.

The proprietary Optomax liquid level sensing circuit developed by SST consists of an IR LED and a phototransistor, accompanied by a microcontroller unit. The strength of the IR signal passing between the LED and the phototransistor alters when liquid comes into contact with the sensor tip – thereby providing a rapid and highly precise method to determine the presence of liquid (even in the smallest of quantities) or its or absence. The switches’ output signals can be set ‘high’ in order to correspond either to a wet or a dry state, as is most appropriate for the application and connected circuitry. As this mechanism is based on a solid-state arrangement, with no moving parts involved, it is much more reliable than alternative solutions (such as float switches). Optomax devices are, as a result, not subject to mechanical wear and tear, nor are they susceptible to jamming issues.

The post Industrial Grade Liquid Level Switches Support Higher Supply Voltages & Temperatures appeared first on Electronics For You.

SARA-R412M is the world’s smallest multi-mode LTE Cat M1, NB-IoT (NB1), and quad-band 2G solution to offer global configurability in a single hardware version

Thalwil, Switzerland – January 23, 2018 – u-blox (SIX:UBXN), a global leader in wireless and positioning modules and chips, today announced the SARA-R412M, an LTE Cat M1, NB-IoT, and quad band 2G (EGPRS) module with worldwide coverage. Measuring just 16 x 26 mm, the module is the world’s smallest to provide both LTE and quad band EGPRS support in a single design. The flexibility extends further with dynamic system selection as Cat M1, NB-IoT, and EGPRS in single mode or as a preferred connection that does not require a module reboot to switch between modes. It brings a rich feature suite optimized for LPWA (low-power wide-area) IoT applications that require the assurance of 2G connectivity to guarantee broad geographic coverage, even in areas where LTE Cat M1 and NB-IoT are not widely available yet. New IoT devices deployed in the field today can activate on existing 2G networks and still leverage the benefits of LTE Cat M1 and NB-IoT technology once it becomes available.

The SARA-R4 series covers a whole host of IoT applications, especially those reliant on long-term, low power use or requiring connectivity deep within buildings. Examples include gas, water, and electricity metering, city street lighting, building automation, HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning), industrial monitoring and control, telematics, insurance, asset and vehicle tracking, security systems, alarm panels, outpatient monitoring, and many consumer wearables.

“The u-blox SARA-R412M provides customers that require 2G fallback a solution that preserves both the 16 x 26 mm form factor and the precise pin assignment used for the LTE Cat M1 and NB1 SARA-R4 products,” says Patty Felts, Principal Product Manager, Cellular, at u-blox. “Not only does this enable customers to easily sunset or migrate from other u-blox 2G, 3G, and 4G modules, it also strengthens u-blox’s leadership position of offering among the world’s smallest global hardware designs.”

Broad capabilities in a single hardware

SARA-R412M enables global solutions based on a single hardware version, allowing developers to select their own desired frequencies and operator configurations. SARA-R412M ensures data integrity between applications via secure communication protocols, notably including two-way authentication between client and server, a strategy often utilized with cloud services.

Critical firmware updates can be delivered with the u-blox proprietary uFOTA (firmware over the air) client/server solution that uses LWM2M, a light and compact protocol that is ideal for IoT applications. This allows end-users to continue using the same hardware when features and functionalities are updated, making it well-suited for critical applications running on devices that may be deployed in the field over long periods of time.

Low power consumption and extended range

SARA-R412M provides an extended temperature range of -40 to +85°C, and supports Power Save Mode (PSM) and Extended Discontinuous Reception (e-DRX) for LTE Cat M1 and NB-IoT connectivity, which can extend battery lifetime for up to 10 years.

3GPP Coverage Enhancement allows the module’s Cat M1 connectivity to reach deeper into buildings and basements, and even underground with NB-IoT when compared to other air interface technologies such as GSM or Cat 1.

The module will be available later this year.

The post World’s Smallest LTE Cat M1 and NB-IoT Multimode Module appeared first on Electronics For You.

Ventilators have become synonymous for emergency care. Unfortunately, due to their high cost, not every hospital and patient in the world can afford them. The good news is that the world’s smallest and cheapest ventilator has been made in India, revolutionising critical care. This ventilator can be purchased by all levels of hospitals from primary care hospitals to tertiary care hospitals. The scope of its commercialisation is quite huge.

The journey

The new ventilator is the result of a joint effort between Professor Diwakar Vaish, head, robotics and research, A-SET Training & Research Institutes, and Dr Deepak Agrawal, professor-neurosurgery at AIIMS, New Delhi.

“We met during a programme in AIIMS and there we discussed various challenges that our healthcare system is facing currently. Out of all the problems, we centered on ventilators, due to lack of which precious lives are being lost. From there on we decided to work together to make a cheaper and more efficient ventilator. Our main aim was to create something that is cheap, easy to run and portable,” shared Prof. Vaish.

The technology was developed by A-SET with medical inputs from AIIMS.

The new ventilator developed by A-SET together with AIIMS

Challenges

Conventional ventilators are very expensive (costing ₹ 1-1.5 million each), extremely big (1-1.5m tall and around 61cm wide and deep) and complicated, requiring medical staff to run them. In addition, these need constant oxygen supply to run, which costs around ₹ 2000-3500 per day.

A-SET Robotics’ ventilator overcomes these problems as:

1. It is around a hundred times cheaper at ₹ 15,000.
2. It has the size of a compact disk, so it can fit into the user’s pocket.
3. It doesn’t require oxygen supply and can circulate room air to the patients.
4. No professional expertise is required to control it. It can be operated by just a smartphone via Bluetooth interface, which makes it extremely easy to use. Also, in case of any problem, one may reach out to the provided helpline numbers, and it can be controlled remotely by the central team.

How it works

A machine learning algorithm understands the patient’s inhale-exhale pattern and controls air pressure and flow rate to the patient as per the best settings:

1. A pressure sensor monitors the relative pressure of the patient’s air passage over 1000 times a minute
2. The pressure reading is then sent to a computing unit, which calculates if it’s inhale phase or exhale phase
3. In inhale phase, the air is induced at a controlled pressure and sent at controlled rate to the patient
4. Upon sensing that the lung is filled to the right capacity, the air flow is stopped
5. Thereafter exhale phase is sensed for the patient
6. Once exhale phase is sensed, another air channel is selected for exhaling the air from the lungs to the atmosphere

This is an extremely time-critical operation as inhale and exhale happen within a time span of 1-2 seconds. Even slight delay in computing can hamper the entire process. Hence there is hardly any setting required for the ventilator and the entire process can be managed by the ventilator itself without requiring the services of any health practitioner.

Acceptance and validation

The new ventilator has brought hope to thousands of those patients who have complete body paralysis and have been hospitalised for many years. Now, they can afford a ventilator and get back to their homes. This ventilator can be used in all the situations where normal ventilators are used, such as in hospitals, ambulances and even homes.

Prof. Vaish explained, “Although the innovation is breakthrough, we still face some basic functional challenges. Like, in manufacturing, the process to obtain certifications is slow and tedious. We are applying for major global certifications and hope to get them in the near future. We already have two patents credited for our product.”

Mechanism inside the ventilator

“Technically, mistakes and innovations go hand-in-hand. We tried various sensors and different algorithms. At times, the members of team thought it was impossible. However, it is through consistent efforts and hard work that we won. We finally succeeded after over 50 iterations,” Dr Vaish added.

The road ahead

The team wants its product to penetrate as deep as possible. It is looking for support from the government as well. It is also open to partnership with other companies, especially those in medial domain. The team hopes that the product reaches to people in need not just in India but throughout the world. It wants the sales to cross 50,000 units next year.

The post World’s Cheapest and Smallest Ventilator Made in India appeared first on Electronics For You.

LabVIEW NXG introduces key functionality for engineers developing and deploying automated test and measurement systems.

INDIA, Bangalore – January 24, 2018 – NI, the provider of platform-based systems that enable engineers and scientists to solve the world’s greatest engineering challenges, announced a new release of LabVIEW NXG, the next generation of LabVIEW engineering system design software. Engineers can now test smarter with LabVIEW NXG – quickly set up your instruments, customize tests to your device specifications, and easily view results from any web browser, on any device.

This new version of LabVIEW NXG introduces key functionality and reinvents long-standing benefits, particularly for engineers developing, deploying and managing automated test and measurement systems. This release introduces the WebVI, a VI type for building web-based user interfaces (UIs) that can be deployed to any web browser – PC, tablet or phone – with no plug-ins or installers. Additionally, to reduce hardware configuration time, the new SystemDesigner feature automatically discovers connected hardware, displays installed drivers and directly links to available NI and third-party instrument drivers if they are not yet installed.

Furthermore, this latest release expands hardware support to thousands of box instruments and NI’s high-performance PXI modular instrumentation. Now, LabVIEW NXG also delivers programming capabilities such as object-oriented programming and integration with the industry-leading TestStand test management software.

NI designed several features in LabVIEW NXG, such as the WebVI, for use with existing LabVIEW applications without the need for extensive software refactoring. Engineers can reuse test code, including code written with LabVIEW NXG or LabVIEW, through a new package manager interface built on industry-standard package formats.

“By building test systems using LabVIEW and LabVIEW NXG, I can work with both versions and take advantage of the unique strengths of each,” said Brian Hoover, test software architect at Samsung SDI. “With this next phase of LabVIEW NXG, I can integrate new ways to visualize data, either on the desktop with vector-based UI graphics or in the browser for secure hosting, into my existing LabVIEW applications to simplify reporting test results.”

As NI builds on its more than 30-year investment in software, this latest update to the next generation of LabVIEW continues a series of fast-paced releases aimed to expand engineering capabilities from design to test. Whether you are buying LabVIEW for the first time or have been on an active service contract for years, you can access both the new version of LabVIEW NXG and LabVIEW 2017. From simple DAQ applications to building complex test systems and smart machines, LabVIEW helps reduce time to market and accelerate engineering productivity.

The post Test Smarter With the Latest Enhancements to LabVIEW NXG appeared first on Electronics For You.

• Suppression of spurious noise between 20 MHz and 100 MHz
• Noise suppression performance equivalent to that of larger wire-wound components
• Satisfies CISPR 15 standards for LED lighting

TDK Corporation has expanded the MAF series of noise suppression filters with the new MAF2520ASS600C type that is designed especially for LED lighting systems. The new multilayer filter has compact dimensions of just 2.5 mm x 2.0 mm x 0.85 mm and features a suppression of spurious noise between 20 MHz and 100 MHz that is equivalent with that of larger wire-wound components. The new component has a rated current of 500 mA and a low DC resistance of just 0.28 Ω (typical). Its impedance at 30 MHz is 3.4 kΩ. Thanks to its wide operating temperature range of -40 to +125 °C, the component is also suitable for use in high temperature environments. In addition, the new MAF2520ASS600C filter satisfies CISPR 15 standards for LED lighting. Mass production began in January 2018.

Thanks to their reduced energy consumption and long operating life, LED lighting systems have continued to become increasingly popular in a wide range of applications in homes and buildings. In order to offer additional enhanced value, manufacturers are developing intelligent solutions with networked illumination control systems. The new miniaturized MAF2520ASS600C noise suppression filter from TDK is designed to protect the controllers from the noise generated by the AC to DC LED power supplies. Moving forward, TDK will continue to develop filter products that offer high-performance noise suppression in even smaller dimensions.

Main applications

Networked LED lighting systems in homes and buildings

Main features and benefits

• Suppression of spurious noise between 20 MHz and 100 MHz
• Wide operating temperature range of -40 to +125 °C for use in high temperature environments
• Compact dimensions of 2.5 mm x 2.0 mm x 0.85 mm
• Satisfies CISPR 15 standards for LED lighting

The post Compact Noise Suppression Filters for LED Lighting appeared first on Electronics For You.

In this video, the presenter is building a water level sensor system using Arduino Development board.

Components needed:

• Water Sensor
• Jumper Wires
• Arduino Development board

Video Courtesy: Saikuni

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In this series of four articles, fundamentals as well as advanced topics of image processing using MATLAB are discussed. The articles cover basic to advanced functions of MATLAB’s image processing toolbox (IPT) and their effects on different images. Part I in this series gives a brief introduction to digital images and MATLAB followed by basic image processing operations in MATLAB including image reading, display and storage back into the disk.

Image processing

Image processing is the technique to convert an image into digital format and perform operations on it to get an enhanced image or extract some useful information from it. Changes that take place in images are usually performed automatically and rely on carefully designed algorithms.

Image processing is a multidisciplinary field, with contributions from different branches of science including mathematics, physics, optical and electrical engineering. Moreover, it overlaps with other areas such as pattern recognition, machine learning, artificial intelligence and human vision research. Different steps involved in image processing include importing the image with an optical scanner or from a digital camera, analysing and manipulating the image (data compression, image enhancement and filtering), and generating the desired output image.

The need to extract information from images and interpret their content has been the driving factor in the development of image processing. Image processing finds use in numerous sectors, including medicine, industry, military, consumer electronics and so on.
In medicine, it is used for diagnostic imaging modalities such as digital radiography, positron emission tomography (PET), computerised axial tomography (CAT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Industrial applications include manufacturing systems such as safety systems, quality control and automated guided vehicle control.

Complex image processing algorithms are used in applications ranging from detection of soldiers or vehicles, to missile guidance and object recognition and reconnaissance. Biometric techniques including fingerprinting, face, iris and hand recognition are being used extensively in law enforcement and security.

Digital cameras and camcorders, high-definition TVs, monitors, DVD players, personal video recorders and cell phones are popular consumer electronics items using image processing.

MATLAB

MATLAB, an abbreviation for ‘matrix laboratory,’ is a platform for solving mathematical and scientific problems. It is a proprietary programming language developed by MathWorks, allowing matrix manipulations, functions and data plotting, algorithm implementation, user interface creation and interfacing with programs written in programming languages like C, C++, Java and so on.

In MATLAB, the IPT is a collection of functions that extends the capability of the MATLAB numeric computing environment. It provides a comprehensive set of reference-standard algorithms and workflow applications for image processing, analysis, visualisation and algorithm development.

It can be used to perform image segmentation, image enhancement, noise reduction, geometric transformations, image registration and 3D image processing operations. Many of the IPT functions support C/C++ code generation for desktop prototyping and embedded vision system deployment.

What is a digital image?

A digital image may be defined as a two-dimensional function f(x,y), where ‘x’ and ‘y’ are spatial coordinates and the amplitude of ‘f’ at any pair of coordinates is called the intensity of the image at that point. When ‘x,’ ‘y’ and amplitude values of ‘f’ are all finite discrete quantities, the image is referred to as a digital image.

Digitising the coordinate values is referred to as ‘sampling,’ while digitising the amplitude values is called ‘quantisation.’ The result of sampling and quantisation is a matrix of real numbers.

A digitised image is represented as:

Each element in the array is referred to as a pixel or an image element.

Basic image processing commands in MATLAB

In MATLAB a digital image is represented as:

In this representation, you can notice the shift in origin.

Reading images

Images are read in MATLAB environment using the function ‘imread.’ Syntax of imread is:

imread(‘filename’);

where ‘filename’ is a string having the complete name of the image, including its extension.

For example,

>>F = imread(Penguins_grey.jpg);
>>G = imread(Penguins_RGB.jpg);

Please note that when no path information is included in ‘filename,’ ‘imread’ reads the file from the current directory. When an image from another directory has to be read, the path of the image has to be specified.

Semicolon (;) at the end of a statement is used to suppress the output. If it is not included, MATLAB displays on the screen the result of the operation specified in that line.

‘>>’ indicates the beginning of a command line as it appears in the MATLAB command window.

Fig. 1: Grayscale image of penguins

Fig. 2: RGB image of penguins

Figs 1 and 2 show grayscale and RGB images of penguins, respectively. These images can be downloaded from the EFY website and stored in the current working directory.

imread, imshow and imwrite functions in MATLAB are used to read images in MATLAB environment, display them on MATLAB desktop and write them to the current directory, respectively

The post Image processing using MATLAB: Basic operations (Part 1 of 4) appeared first on Electronics For You.

TRACO POWER has announced the release of their TVN 3 family of 3 Watt low-noise DC-DC Converters in a compact SIP 8 Package measuring only 0.86 x 0.38 x 0.44”. Maximum output ripple of 15mV pk-pk or down to 10mV pk-pk with a 10 µF capacitor make these ideal for pro-audio, test equipment and applications that are noise sensitive.

The TVN 3 family consists of 36 standard models offering input ranges of 4.5~13.2 / 9~18 / 18~36 / 36~72 VDC; and output voltages of 3.3 / 5 / 9 / 12 / 15 / 24 / ±5 / ±12 / ±15 VDC. They provide an isolation voltage of 1600 VDC with tightly regulated outputs. Apart from the standard 2:1 input voltage range, the low input voltage models feature an extended input voltage range from 4.5-13.2 VDC (3:1). Additional features include: full load operation up to 75°C (up to 90°C with 50% derating); short circuit protection; they meet EN 55032 for conducted class A or class B with external components and no minimum load required. Units are manufactured to IEC 60950-1 standards, qualified to MIL-STD-810F Thermal Shock & Vibration standards, are Reach / RoHS compliant and supported with a 3 year warranty.

Products are in stock and available through the TRACO POWER global distribution network with manufacturing lead times of 8-10 weeks.

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XJTAG DFT Assistant available as CR-8000 Design Gateway Plugin

22 February 2018 – Westford, MA, USA; Munich, Germany; Cambridge, UK – Zuken and XJTAG, a leader in boundary scan and design for test technology, have released a plugin that will enhance Zuken’s CR-8000 with a design for test (DFT) capability improving test coverage by allowing additional design checks during schematic entry. The capability is based on XJTAG’s DFT Assistant and will be released as a free plugin for Zuken’s CR-8000 Design Gateway users at Embedded World 2018 in Nuremberg, Germany.

CR-8000 is a native 3D product-centric design platform for PCB-based systems. CR-8000 directly supports architecture design, concurrent multi-board PCB design, chip/package/board co-design, and full 3D MCAD co-design. CR-8000 Design Gateway is Zuken’s platform for logical circuit design and verification.

Increasingly, printed circuit boards (PCBs) are densely populated, and physical access to the pins of many packages, such as Ball Grid Array (BGA), is impossible. JTAG was designed to remove the need for physical access, so it is now vitally important to get the JTAG chain right at the design stage. Many people are not aware of JTAG’s full capability: it is typically known for CPU debug, but it also facilitates test and in-circuit programming. Tools that utilise the JTAG capability do not come into play until after the first hardware becomes available, and they are often considered for manufacturing only. The XJTAG DFT Assistant incorporates JTAG testability as part of the design process before any hardware is produced, by reporting any potential design issues. Being able to validate the design early avoids board re-spins and costly delays to a project.

XJTAG DFT Assistant helps to validate correct JTAG chain connectivity, while displaying boundary scan access and coverage onto the schematic diagram through full integration with CR-8000 Design Gateway.

Simon Payne, CEO of XJTAG, says: “XJTAG is pleased to be a part of Zuken’s solution ecosystem. Companies need to determine early in the design phase how to maximize test coverage using the minimum number of test points, so it is essential to know what JTAG access is available at the schematic stage of the design process. The XJTAG DFT Assistant for Zuken’s CR-8000 Design Gateway makes it easy to see the test access as the design evolves. This allows test engineers to significantly optimize testing before their PCBs are produced.”

“Zuken’s CR-8000 now includes the XJTAG DFT Assistant that provides engineers with a free, easy-to-use interface to check if JTAG chains are correctly connected and terminated at the schematic capture stage, long before the PCB is produced,” says Bob Potock, Vice President of Marketing at Zuken USA, Inc. “XJTAG DFT Assistant is the validation tool our customers need to ensure they have reliable points of access on their boards for debug (any JTAG device), for JTAG programming, or for boundary scan testing before any hardware is produced.”

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This video will help you solving one of the major problems with esp8266 12e board. It has a single analog pin and hence a user cannot use this board with multiple sensors for a monitoring device.

In this video, the author is going to show you how to interface upto 16 analog sensors using that same ESP8266 12E development board.

Courtesy: techiesms

The post Monitoring up to 16 Analog Sensors Using NodeMCU (ESP8266 12E) appeared first on Electronics For You.

Paresh Patel is the founder of System Level Solutions (SLS), and has expertise in a range of subjects related to electronics and IoT-including design and development of ASICs, FPGAs, PCBs, et al. He is now driving SLS to make it a giant in the IoT sector. Rahul Chopra from EFY spoke to him on how the IoT industry is shaping up, and SLS plans to address the opportunities it presents.

Q. Many are saying that the IoT is just a buzzword and that not much has changed when it comes to tech adoption. What’s your take on it?

A. Yes, the term ‘IoT’ is very much overused within the industry in that if a product touches the Internet, it is deemed to be the IoT. There are many components to IoT-sensors, hardware, software, communication software, analytics, apps, security. The IoT is bringing all these together and causing a major convergence. Each type of the provider can claim to be in the IoT, and rightly so. And that’s causing the blurring.

We have seen the mad rush of people developing single solutions, making things smart by deploying sensors and providing data visualisation in order to gain a piece of the year 2020’s projected $7.1-trillion market.

At SLS, we realised that these were the end points and that we needed to go deeper and focus on how things were brought and held together.

In the last three years, we have written millions of lines of code and filed three patents. By fully leveraging our expertise of combining disparate hardware, software, cloud and IP, we are addressing needs of the IoT at its core in order to realise the true value of the IoT.

Q. How do you see the technology gap between India and the rest of the world?

A. From the software point of view, I see no gap-India can run circles around the rest of the world. However, from the hardware point of view, there is a huge gap. How many system-on-chips (SoCs) do you see with an Indian company’s logo laser marked on them?

In China, you have Allwinner, Rockchip, RDA, ZTE, HiSilicon and the list goes on.

I am not saying we need to have IC fabrication facilities, but we do need to have infrastructure that nurtures a hardware eco-system. The government will need to help and has started with initiatives like Make in India, Start Up India and Invest India.

Q. What’s your advice to design engineers who want to make the most of IoT application development opportunities?

A. Build, build and build! When you touch the IoT, you build expertise in both hardware and software. Building knowledge that can be applied does lead to rewards.

Q. How can academicians prepare themselves and their students for the IoT era?

A. Both academicians and students should start with the basics. However, it can’t be a research exercise. It must be hands-on. Kits should not be left in the academicians’ cupboard only to be taken out when there is an audit. These must be in the hands of students and, yes, the students will break them-that is all part of the learning process.

Just connecting some piece of hardware to the Internet doesn’t mean you are now an IoT expert. The best way to learn is to pick a real-world problem and solve it end-to-end. That does take planning from the academicians and students alike.

For example, at SLS we created a BigData team. To accelerate learning, we decided to enter a competition on Kaggle to solve a real-world problem using artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML)-something this web-based platform excels at. Out of approximately 2000 teams, we ranked 16th for detecting lung cancer from DICOM images. We wrote a paper about this method, which was accepted at International Conference on Advanced Computational and Communication Paradigms (ICACCP).

Q. What are the key challenges before developers in making IoT solutions secure?

A. The challenge is to provide end-to-end security leveraging the latest technologies, policies and best practices in an ever changing environment. A data security policy needs definition from the conceptual stage with vulnerability analysis of the data to attacks. Not just one type of security is enough. This means multiple security layers must be implemented. In the absence of policy and standards that govern IoT implementations, developers must ensure use of the best practices.

Without being a crypto-expert, one must seamlessly integrate security into network and end devices. Only the necessary data must be collected, retained and disposed of-all securely, keeping in mind user access rights. The good news is that there are solutions to do this-the Nebulae Framework is one such solution.

The post Just Connecting Some Piece of Hardware to the Internet Doesn’t Mean you are Now an IoT Expert appeared first on Electronics For You.

• Fusion of 32-bit ultra-low-power microcontroller and highly integrated Bluetooth 5 (BLE) and IEEE 802.15.4 radio creates high-performing wireless platform for feature-rich smart connected objects
• Dual Arm Cortex-M cores individually dedicated to device operation and wireless communication ensure smoother user experience
• Compatibility with proven STM32 ecosystem brings developer advantages and faster time to market

Geneva, February 22, 2018 – Powering the next generation of smart connected objects like digital-home products, wearable electronics, smart lighting, and smart sensors, STMicroelectronics (NYSE: STM), a global semiconductor leader serving customers across the spectrum of electronics applications, has revealed an advanced dual-processor wireless chip that supports new features and enhanced performance with extended battery life to deliver an improved end-user experience.

The new STM32WB wireless System-on-Chip (SoC) devices combine a fully-featured Arm Cortex-M4-based microcontroller to run the main application as well as an Arm Cortex-M0+ core to offload the main processor and offer real time operation on the Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) 5 and IEEE 802.15.4 radio. The radio can also run other wireless protocols concurrently, including OpenThread, ZigBee, or proprietary protocols, giving even more options for connecting devices to the Internet of Things (IoT).

Today, only a few manufacturers offer similar dual-processor wireless chips capable of managing the user application and the radio separately for optimum performance, and with such large memory size. Alternatives typically utilize entry-level Arm Cortex-M industry-standard cores, which introduce architecture limitations.

Combining the higher-performing Cortex-M4 with a Cortex-M0+ for network processing, the STM32WB leverages ST’s ultra-low-power MCU (microcontroller) technologies to combine superior RF performance for longer battery life. The SoC also includes essential circuitry (balun) for connecting to the antenna, which engineers must usually design themselves, as well as generous user and system memory, hardware encryption, and customer-key storage for brand and IP protection.

“The STM32WB series delivers the advanced integration and uncompromising dual-core performance that developers now need to meet relentless end-user demands for even better and more affordable smart connected objects,” said Michel Buffa, Group Vice President, Microcontroller Division General Manager, STMicroelectronics. “Moreover, compatibility with the STM32 development ecosystem brings design advantages that can significantly reduce time to market for new products like lights, fitness trackers, medical monitors, beacons, tags, security devices, and many others.”

Engineering samples of the STM32WB in packages up to 100-pin WLCSP will begin sampling to lead customers in Q1 2018, priced from $1.56 for high-volume orders.

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Lannion, France, 23.02.2018 – Radio Frequency Systems (RFS), a global designer and manufacturer of cable, antenna and tower systems providing total-package solutions for wireless and broadcast infrastructure, today announced the availability of a three-column antenna configuration to support the L-band (1.4GHz). This antenna family is particularly critical as the 1.4GHz band continues to be reallocated from satellite communications to LTE applications. RFS’ three-column platform is also ready to host additional bands such as 3.5GHz and 5GHz. Newly licensed frequencies have the potential to provide today’s mobile operators with much-needed capacity support for continually growing mobile network traffic.

RFS’ three-column platform allows the addition of 1.4GHz band support alongside legacy low (694-960MHz) and high (1695-2690MHz) frequency bands without the need for any internal or external diplexing and will continue enabling MIMO 4×4 in these bands while offering high gain on all bands. The innovative ultra-wide band (1400-2690MHz) antenna design and latest features provide the best trade-off between gain and vertical and horizontal patterns from a single antenna, and is ideal for adding capacity and coverage to existing sites and integrating new frequency bands.

RFS takes a building block approach to antenna development, efficiently tailoring existing and trusted platforms to serve as the foundation for future-proof new solutions. The three-column platform will allow the evolution up to 16-ports on a single antenna without any diplexing required. This platform gives operators the flexibility to deploy multiple radio technologies with several frequency bands and 4-way MIMO on one 50 cm (19.7 in)-wide antenna with best-in-class wind-load and PIM performances.

“RFS is a technology innovator committed to providing our customers around the world with the most flexible, high-performance and cost effective platforms that will enable them to support the frequencies of today – and easily integrate the next-generation frequencies of tomorrow,” said Laurent Cruchant, Vice President Antennas Business Unit, RFS. “We understand the unrelenting network capacity demands that mobile operators face and the importance of supporting all low, high and middle band frequencies from a single antenna platform.”

RFS’ flexible three-column platform achieves the optimal tradeoff between RF performance and mechanical constraint, providing MIMO-enabling features (Port-to-port isolation, cross polar discrimination, squint) at the highest market standards. It is designed for low wind-load to minimize tower loading, as it is comparable in size to available dual-band antennas but it adds a third antenna path. Its 4.3-10 connector interface supports future-proof multi-band antenna deployments with optimized PIM stability.

The post New Three-column Multi-Band Antennas Supporting the 1.4GHz Frequency Band for LTE Applications appeared first on Electronics For You.

Presented here is a linear-feedback shift register (LFSR) using Verilog that is designed and simulated using ModelSim testbench. Register-transfer level (RTL) models are quite popular in the industry as these can be easily synthesised using latest electronic design automation (EDA) tools. This project describes the RTL model of a synchronous circuit-an autonomous LFSR that executes concurrent transformations on a data path under the synchronising control of its input clock signal.

LFSR

Linear-feedback shift registers are commonly used in data-compression circuits implementing a signature analysis technique called cyclic-redundancy check (CRC).

Autonomous LFSRs are used in applications requiring pseudo-random binary numbers. It is a shift register whose input bit is a linear function of its previous state. The most commonly used linear function of a single bit is Exclusive OR (XOR). Thus an LFSR is most often a shift register whose input bit is driven by the XOR of some bits of the overall shift register.
There are numerous applications where LFSRs are used as pseudo-random numbers, pseudo-noise sequences and fast digital counters. Therefore hardware and software implementations of LFSRs are common.

Circuit and working

The sample block diagram of a 4-bit LFSR is shown in Fig. 1. An autonomous LFSR can be a random pattern generator providing stimulus patterns to a circuit. The response to these patterns can be compared to the circuit’s expected response and thereby reveal the presence of an internal fault. The autonomous LFSR shown in Fig. 1 has binary tap coefficients C1….CN that determine whether Y(N) is fed back to a given stage of the register. The block diagram shown here has CN =1 because Y[N] is connected directly to the input of the first stage.

An LFSR is basically a sequential shift register with a combinational feedback logic. Therefore it generates pseudo-random cycle sequence of binary values. Here, the LFSR loops through repetitive sequences of pseudo-random values.

Software program

The sample Verilog code (lfsr_tb.v.) is written for an eight-cell autonomous LFSR with a synchronous (edge-sensitive) cyclic behaviour using RTL design. Each bit of the register is assigned a value concurrently with the other bits; the order of the listed non-blocking assignments is of no consequence.

The movement of data through the register under simulation is shown in binary and hexadecimal formats. In this project, the register transfers up to eight bits (length=8) using the code:

//Verilog Source Code (lfsr_tb.v)
module Auto_LFSR_RTL(Y, Clock, Reset);
parameter Length=8;
parameter initial_state=8’h1001_0001;
parameter [1:Length] Tap_
coefficient=8’b1100_1111;
input Clock, Reset;
output [1:Length] Y;
reg [1:Length] Y;
always @ (posedge Clock)
if (reset ==0) Y <= initial_state; //
Active-low reset to initial state
else begin
Y[1] <= Y[8];
Y[2] <= Tap_Coefficient[7] ?
Y[1]^Y[8]:Y[1];
Y[3] <= Tap_Coefficient[6] ?
Y[2]^Y[8]:Y[2];
Y[4] <= Tap_Coefficient[5] ?
Y[3]^Y[8]:Y[3];
Y[5] <= Tap_Coefficient[7] ?
Y[4]^Y[8]:Y[4];
Y[6] <= Tap_Coefficient[7] ?
Y[5]^Y[8]:Y[5];
Y[7] <= Tap_Coefficient[7] ?
Y[6]^Y[8]:Y[6];
Y[8] <= Tap_Coefficient[1] ?
Y[7]^Y[8]:Y[7];
end
endmodule

The code for a 4-bit LFSR is:
//Verilog code (lfsr.v)
module lfsr (out, clk, rst);
output reg [3:0] out;
input clk, rst;
wire feedback;
assign feedback = ~(out[3] ^ out[2]);
always @(posedge clk, posedge rst)
begin
if (rst)
out = 4’b0;
else
out = {out[2:0],feedback};
end
endmodule

Testing and simulation

To simulate the LFSR design, install ModelSim V10.4a on a Windows PC and follow the steps given below:

1. Start ModelSim from the desktop; you will see ModelSim 10.4a dialogue window

2. Create a project by clicking ‘JumpStart’ in the welcome screen

3. In ‘Create Project’ window (Fig. 2), select a suitable name for your project. Set ‘Project Location’ and leave the rest as default, then click ‘Ok.’ ‘Add items to the Project’ window pops up (Fig. 3).

4. In ‘Add items to the Project’ window, select ‘Create New File’ option

5. In ‘Create Project File’ window, give an appropriate file name (say, lfsr.v) for the file you want to add, and choose Verilog under ‘Add file as type’ and ‘Top Level’ under ‘Folder’ (Fig. 4)

6. In the workspace section of the main window (Fig. 5), double-click the file you have just created (lfsr.v in our case)

7. Type your Verilog code in the new window. The main goal here is to write a self-test bench that will generate clock automatically for the simulation output window. Save your code from ‘File’ menu

8. Now, add the new file to lfsr.v by right-clicking it. Select Add to Project New File as shown in Fig. 6

Give the file name as lfsr_tb.v. This is the test case where you can test and understand the working of a linear-feedback shift register. Details of this LFSR can be understood from the relevant source file.

Compiling/debugging project files.

1. Select Compile Compile All

2. Compilation result is shown on the main window. A green tick against each file name indicates that there are no errors in the project (Fig. 7)

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